The Cause of Terrorism

Terrorism is, in the most general sense, the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion. [1] At present, the International community has been unable to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition of terrorism. [2][3] Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (civilians). Some definitions also include acts of unlawful violence and war. The history of terrorist organizations suggests that they do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness. [4] Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are often murky and undefined. [4] The word â€Å"terrorism† is politically and emotionally charged,[5] and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing a precise definition. Studies have found over 100 definitions of â€Å"terrorism†. 6][7] The concept of terrorism may itself be controversial as it is often used by state authorities to delegitimize political or other opponents,[8] and potentially legitimize the state's own use of armed force against opponents (such use of force may itself be described as â€Å"terror† by opponents of the state. ). [8][9] A less politically and emotionally charged, and more easily definable, term is violent non-state actor[10] ( though the semantic scope of this term includes not only â€Å"terrorists,† while excluding some individuals or groups who have previously been described as â€Å"terrorists†). citation needed] Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations for furthering their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments. [11] One form is the use of violence against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining publicity for a group, cause, or individual. [12]

Intelligence Agencies and Just War on Terrorism Essay

America and its allies face Ð ° world that has become more and more dangerous with its weapons of mass destruction and Ð ° shadowy world of terrorists more than willing to use them. The wisdom of the past does not have the prescience or universal insight to deal with this new threat. America and its allies must change direction if they wish to respond to the challenge in an effective manner, even if it means employing policies that seemed dubious in the past. The state is called to protect its citizens in Ð ° Machiavellian world, filled with depravity and compromise. The church is called to submit to the superior wisdom of those who have the special intelligence, experience and expertise to handle the current crisis. Our forefathers came from Europe to settle in Ð ° wilderness that was not always hospitable. Death was imminent, and survival was uppermost on all their minds. The settlement in Jamestown, after the death of Powhatan, suffered an unprovoked attack at the hands of the Native Americans in 1622, in which some 375 settlers were massacred. The immediate response was to make Ð ° perfidious treaty with the natives and then starve them by burning their crops late that summer. It was Ð ° matter of survival. It was either ‘us or them’. (Amit 2003 127) â€Å"The same policy was followed by the Puritans of Massachusetts when the Pequot Indians, Ð ° most war-like people, presented an imminent threat in the mind of these settlers. Rather than wait around to die, they proceeded to attack them first, killing in one horrific conflagration of Ð ° Pequot fort some 4oo men, women and children. The exact motives behind the massacre remain unclear, but no doubt survival was uppermost in their minds. Today the situation that confronts the American people is not so different. It is similar to that of their ancestors in many ways and direr in regard to the number of lives at stake. one can debate whether the times have ‘waxed worse and worse’, but it is beyond question that the times have proved ‘more and more critical’ with their weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and the ever-increasing number of potential users. The nation of Israel felt this threat in 1981 when it conducted Ð ° pre-emptive strike against an Iraqi nuclear reactor. The United States roundly condemned the action at the time, but with the threat now facing them from this and other rogue nations Ð ° new policy has emerged. The nefarious intentions of the Iraqi regime are apparent to most observers. It appears as if this regime plans to continue the production of WMD and deliver these weapons themselves or distribute them through the shadowy world of terrorist networks to designated targets in this clandestine manner. The signs of the times are all around us. Iraq already has violated over fifty UN resolutions to date. The UN inspectors revealed that Saddam was vigorously working on Ð ° stockpile of WMD—chemical, biological and nuclear, and by the mid-9os he began to deny them access to his supply. He already has used these weapons against his own people and waves of foot soldiers in his war with Iran. He has pledged on Ð ° number of occasions to bring destruction upon the United States, and even planned the assassination of its former president, George Bush. He has subsidized and continues to support terrorist groups throughout the region, including Hamas and Islamic Jihad according to seized Palestinian documents. His relation to terrorism is Ð ° matter of grave concern. â€Å"(Rahul 2002 37-44) It provides Ð ° special channel to deliver and promote his wicked designs, Bin Laden has called it Ð ° ‘religious duty’ for his minions to obtain and use WMD against the infidels, but he knows that his terrorist network needs help. It is only in the movies that Dr No is able to create the facilities to manufacture and deliver WMD. In the real world of terrorism, the capacity to make and utilize these weapons requires the help of Ð ° government. Aum Shinrikyo, Ð ° Japanese cult, tried to kill thousands of commuters with Ð ° potent nerve agent but managed to kill only Ð ° dozen after spending somewhere around thirty million dollars. The loss of these lives was tragic but much less than expected and displayed the complexity of operations using these agents. The cult was not able to produce the chemical (sarin) in sufficient purity and resorted to using Ð ° most primitive delivery system—carrying it on Ð ° train and piercing bags of it with tips of umbrellas. Ð  government working with Ð ° terrorist organization would produce Ð ° more lethal combination. 3 In light of this threat, it appears as if the only long-term solution is to eliminate the regime in Baghdad. Some would argue that there is no need to rush into war. But one wonders how realistic this option is in view of the track record of the regime. Is it realistic to believe that Iraq would comply with inspectors? It did not the first time around, not in toto, would the UN impose the necessary sanctions and penalties if it did not? Or would it ignore certain closed doors and cave in as it did before to Iraqi demands? And even if unmolested, would the inspectors catch the regime in its lies, knowing that it is likely to play Ð ° shell game and was given four years to hide its weapons? (Bruce 2003 44) Donne’s fatalistic maxim succinctly defines the essential context that modern intelligence services function within, and the variables determining their relative fortunes. Their experiences suggest that they are very human institutions largely shaped by the vagaries of circumstances beyond their control, not to mention misfortune and luck. As refined information used by the state to further national goals and policies, intelligence is directed, collected, analyzed and disseminated (the ‘intelligence cycle’) within the milieu of international politics. Intelligence work must therefore function within the ‘anarchical society’ of Great Powers. 1 Equally significant is the extent to which intelligence functionaries serve at the mercy of their policy masters. The intelligence officers themselves, in their various professional incarnations, are the ‘desperate men’ in this formulation, striving as they do to carry out their risky and/or problematic duties in the face of inertia and outright opposition on the part of rivals, enemies, and occasionally their own countrymen. It is unlikely that any intelligence service in history has ever completely escaped subjugation to such restrictive bondage. â€Å"As mentioned in the previous chapter, the war on al Qaeda should be Ð ° deliberate broad-front attack. It is already that in practice, but the rationale for sustaining this approach is less established and troubles are certain because such Ð ° strategy requires relating the efforts of multiple agencies, subagencies, and even nations, and it sometimes necessitates rapid action. This would seem to require two enhancements of capability which may at first seem contradictory, but they are complementary and equally important. â€Å"(Paul 2002 31) These facts hold particularly true for the office of Strategic Services mission in London, America’s critical liaison and operational intelligence outpost during the Second World War. Expanding to Ð ° peak of 2,800 personnel in 1944, OSS/London was originally established in October 1941 with the arrival of Ð ° single representative, followed by Ð ° staff nucleus the day after America’s entry into the war. Eventually consisting of contingents from the four major OSS branches-Research and Analysis, Secret Intelligence, Special operations, and X-2 (counter-intelligence)-the mission served as Ð ° focal point for Anglo-American intelligence relations in the decisive theatre in the war against Germany. The London mission was at the heart of OSS relations with British intelligence, and as such it personified the essence of that connection in the Allied war effort. The Allied invasion of Europe ensured that OSS/London, more than any other OSS outpost, would have the greatest opportunity to perform Ð ° decisive role in the intelligence war. Other OSS missions would also make important contributions, notably in Cairo, Algiers and Italy; but these were ultimately secondary theatres, while in the Pacific and Asia, OSS never acquired the sound relationship with the military necessary for intelligence operations. London was at the heart of the Allied war effort, and at the heart of the Anglo-American alliance itself. While intelligence exchanges with the Soviet Union have been documented by Bradley F. Smith, London was the ‘big league’ in Allied intelligence during the war. Many significant matters were accordingly played-out there, offering detailed examples of intelligence services in action. The experiences of OSS in London therefore illuminate the process by which America was introduced to the various components of intelligence and clandestine work, and how well American intelligence performed in its own right. As the presumed precursor to the post-war US Central Intelligence Agency, OSS further invites study in order to understand the antecedents of America’s Cold War intelligence service. The significant Anglo-American context of the evolution of modern American intelligence moreover suggests that the Anglo-American ‘Special Relationship’ had an intelligence component that was manifested most strongly and clearly in OSS/London. (Bruce 2oo3 75) The mission thus provides Ð ° case study of how US intelligence matured and became institutionalized within the context of the larger Anglo-American political-military alliance. This analysis accordingly examines an aspect of that alliance and of intelligence history in particular, that has not yet been explored in any comprehensive detail. It is part of Ð ° current historiographical review of the significance of intelligence services in military and international affairs. It specifically examines OSS/London within the context of Anglo-American relations, as well as the evolution of both modern American, and Allied, intelligence during the Second World War. The general research approach blends what has been termed the American and British ‘schools’ of intelligence scholarship. The more historical nature of British intelligence studies has been noted by Kenneth G. Robertson, while Roy Godson’s ‘Intelligence: an American View’, in Robertson’s British and American Approaches to Intelligence, distinguishes between this historical methodology and the more conceptual or theoretical nature of American studies (for example, Sherman Kent’s Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy). British diplomatic historian D. C. Watt has therefore identified these approaches as two distinct schools of intelligence study, though Ð ° recent noteworthy British contribution to the theoretical school is Michael Herman’s Intelligence Power in Peace and War, which surveys the interrelationship between post-war structures, tasks, and effectiveness. This study for its part demonstrates the influences of both schools by linking theoretical concepts to the role of intelligence ties within the larger wartime Anglo-American alliance. (Neville 2004 45) The second general purpose involves judging the relevance and professionalization of the OSS intelligence effort within the Anglo-American alliance, much of the existing literature on OSS has been preoccupied with the question of whether OSS had an impact on the war, of whether it accomplished anything of consequence. This very concern dominated the first ever OSS conference held at the US National Archives in July 1991. (Paul 2001 38-77) There has moreover been Ð ° number of recent works beginning to examine the documentation on the OSS operational record in various geographic areas, such as Romania and China. 7 Richard Aldrich has gone Ð ° considerable way toward surveying OSS links and rivalries with British intelligence in the Far East. 8 Particularly noteworthy in terms of this present study is Jay Jakub’s recent Spies and Saboteurs, Ð ° survey of Anglo-American ‘collaboration and rivalry’ in espionage and special operations in North Africa, Yugoslavia, Asia, and France. Jakub focuses on identifying varying degrees of mutual dependence and independence in these specific operational realms, and is Ð ° more substantially documented approach to the operational evolution of OSS, including within OSS/London. Having said that, no existing work on OSS has really addressed the experience of any OSS mission in terms of the trend identified by Andrew and Dilks, or provided Ð ° comprehensive analysis of all the major OSS branches in their activities. The question of overall OSS significance to the war effort also remains largely unresolved historiographically. This present study therefore strives to detail OSS/London’s evolution and activities comprehensively, and to establish their larger significance to the institutionalization of American intelligence after the war. The third major research goal flows naturally from the second: to illuminate this alliance intelligence relationship within the larger framework of Anglo-American ‘competitive cooperation’. This phrase was coined by David Reynolds to describe how Britain and America acted in concert as circumstances required, while still maneuvering for advantage and preeminence as powers. Linking this phenomenon with the ambiguity, ambivalence, misuse and circumstance inherent in intelligence operations as suggested by intelligence theory invites an analysis of the intelligence relations between two major wartime powers, or more bluntly, to place this intelligence study within the context of Great Power politics. (Anthony 2002 122-56)

Memory Management Essay

The difference between Windows and Linux memory management starts with understanding the requirements of memory management in today’s multiprogramming systems. Memory management requirements are relocation, protection, sharing, local organization, and physical organization. These requirements play a vital role in the processing speed response when using the computer. Windows and Linux have several similarities in regards to memory management but also differ especially with Windows being a sophisticate system and Linux being open sourced. â€Å"Linux shares UNIX characteristics but has its own features and is very complex† (Stallings, 2012, p. 384). Linux virtual memory uses a three- level page structure. The first part is the page structure which is an active process having the size of one page. The entry goes to the page directory and the page directory must be in the main memory to be active. Next is the page middle directory which can span multiple pages. Each entry will point to one page of the table. Last is the page table and refers to one virtual page of the process. A virtual address is used consisting of four fields which are the index into the page directory, index into the page middle directory, index into the page table, and the offset in the selected page of memory. The table structure was designed for 64-bit Alpha processor and is independent. Linux uses the buddy system for efficiency of reading in and writing out pages to and from memory. The buddy system splits and merges pages which are allocated and deallocated in the main memory. The page replacement algorithm in Linux deals with a simple clock which gives each page an age variable. The more times the page is accessed, the age variable is increased. A page that is old would be replaced since it has not been accessed in quite a long time. Linux kernel memory allocation manages the main memory page frames which allocates and deallocates frames for the virtual memory management. When the minimum amount of allocation is less than a page, Linux uses a slab allocation for these smaller chunks making the system more efficient. Windows memory manager is designed to use 4 to 64 Kbytes page sizes and controls how memory is allocated. On 32-bit systems, the Windows process  shows a 32-bit address which allows 4 Gbytes of virtual memory for each process which half is for the operating system and half is for the virtual address space when running in kernel-mode. With the introduction of 64-bit, systems can run more efficiently with larger memory intensive programs. Windows paging can make use of the entire space which can then be brought into the main memory. The operating system manages the address in three regions; available references the address not currently used, reserved for setting aside the process through the virtual memory manager, and committed address for processes to access virtual memory page. When virtual memory is high, the processes increase, and when they are low, older pages are swapped out. In conclusion, Windows and Linux have a few similarities. Both swaps out older pages that are no longer needed to improve the processes Window memory management is more secure and performance orientated, but is more complex. Linux is simpler and easier to maintain but is not secured due to being open sourced and need improvement. Linux was originated in a hacker’s environment while Windows is in a commercial environment. Windows has more effort through design and Linus was favored for simplicity. Each one has their own positives and negatives and the final decision is what system is he and she more comfortable with. References Stallings, W. (2012). Operating Systems: Internals and Design Principles (7th ed.). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

Kant - Critique of the Aesthetic Power of Judgment Essay - 1

Kant - Critique of the Aesthetic Power of Judgment - Essay Example According to Kant, an individual judges the taste of an object in line to the level of satisfaction that is achieved in the use of the object (Kant 118). This satisfaction is said to reside in the beauty of the object. The satisfaction that is achieved in the use of an object is normally accompanied with an individual’s assent. In this sense, it is assumed that the level of satisfaction which is achieved is objective. Kant illustrates that the satisfaction which is achieved through an object varies from one individual to another. This means that what is considered to be satisfying by one person may be unsatisfactory to another. It is due to the above claim that Kant says that an objective approach in the used of an object is valid in determining the level of satisfaction which is achieved by the user or consumer of the object. This implies that when an object is being consumed, the objective of the consumer in the use of the object plays a role in defining if it is satisfactor y or not. If an individual says that a given flower is very beautiful, it is a claim which implies that the flower will satisfy everybody. Kant critiques this argument by saying that the pleasantness of an object such as this flower is not likely to satisfy all people equally (Kant 119). If an individual is satisfied by a smell by considering it pleasant, the same smell may give another person a headache. According to these claims therefore, the beauty of a flower is just one of its properties and the manner in which it is received and experienced by different people varies in accordance to the perception which emanates from their senses. Therefore the satisfaction that is achieved by the smell of the flower is not accommodative of the different tastes among different people because of the following reasons. Firstly, the experiences of people vary which influences the manner

Crosscultural Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Crosscultural Studies - Essay Example This is a healthy practice since it has led to blending of cultures which has enabled effective understanding of each other. However, since September 11 attacks in the United States and the terrorist attacks that followed in the United Kingdom, teachers and students of Arabic origin are facing a different kind of life in these institutions. According to Al-Djazari (2005), there has been a lot of reported discrimination in schools against people of Arabic origin in these schools. It is with the understanding that culture integrates people together through cultural exchanges that we are left to wonder what is causing this purported discriminate. Many people of Arabic origin are mainly Muslims. According to Ghulan Sarwar (2007), Muslims form the largest religious minority in the UK and are confronted by problems of development, maintenance and adherence to their faith. The influence of western culture is eroding the adherent to Islam culture by the young Muslims students and teachers in learning institutions According to Lewis Phillip (1994), the issue of discrimination of teachers and students in the institutions of learning is a serious issues. This is with the understanding that, learning institutions are the centre for cultural exchanges in any country. Learning institutions are the leading centres of cultural research with enable integration of culture. If culture integration is hampered at the learning centre, it is very much likely that it will spread to other spheres of life. It is of vital importance to investigate teachers and students because they are mostly the ambassadors of cultural exchanges in many countries. Most people will travel to work and learn and it is through education and work that people integrate. Purpose of the study The study aimed at investigating the cross-cultural issues that affects Muslim teachers and students in United Kingdom schools. It aimed at exploring how Arabic teachers and students interact with other workers and students in these schools. It also sought to look into the issue that affects their participation in these institutions and their life in general. It looked to investigate the extent to which cultural integration affects relationship of the entire community. Objective of the study a) To investigate the importances of cultural mix up in learning institutions in the United Kingdom. b) To investigate current issues affecting Arabic teachers and students in institutions of learning in the United Kingdom c) To investigate the extent of discrimination in education institutions in United Kingdom Research questions a) Which is importance of cultural mix in learning institutions in the United Kingdom b) Can Arabic students and teachers adapt foreign cultures c) Has Arabic culture created any impact on cultural change of others in the learning institution d) Do Arabic students and teachers face difficulty studying in English language e) Are teachers and students from Arabic world are discriminated on ground of their cultural practices and religion f) Which are the other current and most pressing issues that are affecting teachers and students of Arabic origin sin learning institutions in United Kingdom METHODOLOGY Research group and sample size The research group under study was mainly teachers and student in major learning institut

Project Management, Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project Management, - Essay Example The involvement of the other tenderer that would assist to reduce the gap between the tender and the budget by offering a better solution out of experience from working with different types of tendering items. The tenderer can give directions of acquiring cheaper tools. At the same time, the tenderer can promise to offer a cheaper tender for the same contract. If there is a significant discrepancy noted between the new tenderer and the other tenders, adjustments should therefore be made to seek convenience in the contract. A notification of the tenders- This is to inform you that the scope of the tender has experienced some alterations. According to the budget issued by the principle of the contract, we comprehended that the tenders exceed the budget. Due to lack of enough funds to pay for the project, the project directors have called for the adjustments on the costs of the tender. In that response, I as the contractor, through the guidance of an electrical engineer, have decided to change the scope of the tender so as to reduce the amount of expenditure. The standing mixers in our water plant can be fitted with renovated electrical motors. This would assist the company to achieve some net saving. Legal bases that support this idea can be; according to the distinctions given in section nine, the quality of the materials of work can be changed relatively by the electrical engineer. Any advice given to the contractor by his adviser is adjustable and therefore the contractor has the right to change the scope of the tender. The adviser can change the order or direction in which the work is to be carried out (Engineering and construction, 2004, pg. 34). The specific recommended client can be informed through a notification letter which would provide the strategy arrived ay the contractor and their advisor. A notification to the client would read; After evaluating the three available tenders, PPK Ltd is placed forward with much recommendation. The tender is three hu ndred and sixty five dollars plus GST and comprises twenty tags. Upon the PPK recommendation; the tender has more tags that are accepted without any issue. It consists of the large number of tags yet there does not exist in a large difference in cost between PPK and LMN. ZXK Ltd. is the cheapest tender but has the lowest number of tags. Although the PPK tender is the best for this contract, it would require the highest amount of money. We can make much investment on the PPK so that we can get the best service that would meet our expectations. A notification letter to the tenderer. Kindly note that you, LMN and PPK Ltd, has been selected to perform the contract offered by our company. With respect to the featured information in the tender description, the company considered the PPK tender due to its reasonable number of tags provided in the description. With this response, the company wishes to invite you to a pre-contract meeting, which is programmed for date fourteen of this month. The company shall not violate the available rights of protection towards your tender. The pre-contract meeting shall discuss matters concerning cost, any payments and the reduction in scope of this tender. You will also be expected to provide a specific date for the start of your contract. Letter to LMN The XYZ company has accepted the revised tender amount with the revised contract period. In addition, the company holds much

Hyperboloid Model Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Hyperboloid Model - Term Paper Example The paper’s aim is to comprehensively discuss the concept of the ‘Hyperboloid Model’, in relation to application in the field of Geometry and Mathematics in general. While focus will be placed more on the geometrical application, influences and effects of the model, the paper will also delve into other applications. Conclusively, it will portray the functional application of the model, essential in gaining required accuracy. Towards better understanding the vital importance of the hyperboloid model, there is need of a historical analysis of the concept, in terms of geometrical application. To be noted, as Alekseevskij, Vinberg and Solodovnikov (1993) portray, is that the study of prevailing relations amongst hyperbolic, spherical and Euclidean geometries historically dates back to the early 19th century. This was in an attempt at proving Euclid’s fifth postulate. Accordingly, it is towards ascertaining this that C. F. Gauss was able to subsequently discover, in the 1820s, the concept of hyperbolic geometry. Influential is that only a few years were to pass, before this form of geometry was to be independently re-discovered by both J. Bolyai (1832) and N. Lobacheviski (1829). Notable is that the concept’s founders were in agreement, in terms of providing its strongest evidence for its consistency. This was based upon the duality present, between spherical and hyperbolic trigonometries (Alek seevskij, Vinberg & Solodovnikov, 1993). Initially demonstrated by Lambert – in his [L1770] 1770 memoir – the duality aspect present between the two forms of trigonometries is vivid in a variety of theorems. Inclusive is the ‘law of sines’, which can be affirmed in a form that is applicable in hyperbolic, Euclidean and spherical geometries. Accordingly, it is towards proving the prevailing consistency of hyperbolic geometry that necessitated the building of diverse analytical models upon the Euclidean plane. This is perhaps the reason why Beltrami E.

Organizational Performance Measurement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Organizational Performance Measurement - Essay Example As a whole and general principle, a critical viewpoint differs or can be said as it is outside of the managerialist course in order to learn strategy as a definite organizational process. Through research and several other reviews it was seen that there are many approaches that are critical to strategic management and one of them is the processual school that asserts to illustrate how strategy is actually made from bargaining, constructivist, and embryonic perspectives. But the case is that processual approaches keep some promise however quickly move en route for prescriptive managerialism. Next I would add about a more profound critique from critical theory and postmodern insights. Strategy can be witnessed as a set of practices and discussions which promotes influential rationality it also reiterates hierarchical relations of power and most of all analytically privileges the interests and perspectives of particular groups. This approach has been important in probing the principles of strategy what it lacks is the point that its focus on discussion and lack of concern with the reality of strategy is to a very valid extent its potential weakness. The third and final approach that I like to discuss is drawn from Gramsci which gives an offer from a historical materialist perspective, this approach pays more attention to the actual content of strategy. Here the debatable point is that the strategic exploitation of discursive, managerial, and monetary resources in supporting or challenging supremacy suggests a strategic notion of power and a political standpoint on corporate strategies to exercise market power, influence government policies, , discipline labor and refuse to accept pressures from social groups. This approach also points to a more encompassing image of liberation strategies. Next we can asses the corporate culture in order to get the perspective about the organization involved. Corporate culture is often determined by the beliefs of the people at the controls -- and this culture can affect the way individuals in the organization respond to adversity. For example, a corporate culture based on top management's belief that "No matter what, employees will always work as little as possible, so it's our job to monitor them closely" can foster mistrust and an "us/them" thinking style. In Adaptive terms, this would create a less resilient organization. Senior management can use the Adaptive skill set to build a corporate culture that endorses a flexible, optimistic approach to handling adversity. They can learn to identify their own and their company's cultural "thinking style". They can then check it for common errors in logic and identify the consequences of the style to themselves and to the organization. Corporate Governance and organizational performance To understand the better functioning of a corporation one must know about the corporate governance which is identified as a field in economics that examines how to secure efficient running of organization by the utilization of incentive mechanisms, such as agreements, organizational designs and legislation. This is often limited to the question of improving financial performance, for example, how the corporate owners can secure/motivate that the corporate managers will deliver a competitive rate of return. It is the system

Spanish-American War 1898 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Spanish-American War 1898 - Essay Example President McKinley finally had no choices in the matter as a result of the sinking of the USS Maine. Foreign policy changed dramatically as a result of the consequences of this very short, very significant war that is often forgotten in view of the Civil War. The Spanish-American War, one where Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders earned their place in history, brought about a great deal of change to the perception of the United States by others in the world. This war would cause major changes in the realm of American foreign policy in its wake. The war was brought on by these many factors and soon after the declaration for war was made, soldiers were headed for Havana and Santiago. The Yellow Journalism that began with Hearst and Pulitzer caused a great deal of grief as is relayed in several pieces. One very significant accounting would be an eyewitness description by H. H. Kolsaat as he held in his hand a telegram from the forces in Manila Bay when the USS Maine had been lost. Eyewitness to History's website states that H. H. Kolsaat's recollection of the meeting with President McKinley included a conversation that ended with McKinley in tears saying, "Congress is trying to drive us into war with Spain. The Spanish fleet is in Cuban waters, and we haven't enough ammunition on the Atlantic seacoast to fire a salute." (1) H. H. Kolsaat continues on to say that he spent nearly half the night speaking with the President after the evening's activities. Only the first of many agonizing conversations that the President suffered through in the declaration of war, one he was quite reluctant to consider until there appeared to be no choices in the matter. The deciding factor for President McKinley came in a private letter written by Enrique Dupuy de Lme, the Spanish Minister in Washington, to a Spanish editor then traveling in the United States. It was this letter, described as part of the text from American Military History: Army Historical Series; Chapter 15 Emergence to World Power 1898-1902 and stating the following as the letter "expressed de Lme's adverse personal reaction to McKinley's message to Congress in December 1897. The President was, he thought, "weak and a bidder for admiration of the crowd . . . a would-be politician who tries to leave a door open behind himself while keeping on good terms with the jingoes in his party."" (2) This outraged most Americans when it was published after a man stole it from the office where it had been sent. The outraged outcry from the United States caused what President McKinley considered to be the hardest decision of his career. This decision was to go to war with inadequate forces, in adequate supplies and terrible conditions to work within. All of this had been sparked in the fervor of what has been termed Yellow Journalism, created by Joseph Pulitzer and John Hearst in their work to take the country to war using public opinion as the impetus of the action. Their tactics, no matter how underhanded, managed the objective. The results were felt worldwide. The Spanish-American War of 1898 was one of the shortest wars America ever fought. Four months into the war, it was over. But, the consequences of that war were broad spectrum and felt worldwide. The Spanish-American War of 1898 did the one thing nothing else had managed. It proved that the

Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 12

Annotated Bibliography Example The findings revealed five criteria that define the concept of professional practice. They include: Technical and legal concerns was identified as the most important concern that the students felt should be incorporated in their studies. The results of the study seem to support the effectiveness of the theory of case based learning. Many students feel that they are not being effectively prepared for professional practice. The lack of experience and connection with the professional world are some of the concerns raised by the students. A section of the students felt that creative design is sufficient to prepare them for their field of work. In conclusion, the study identifies the different concerns regarding preparation of students for professional practice. Communication abilities should be part of the higher education program to help students communicate effectively in their professional field. The study recommends further research to determine the effectives of the strategies like case study learning methods. Incorporation of the communication skills and case study learning meth od is likely to equip students with skills needed in professional

Writing assignment of auditing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Writing assignment of auditing - Essay Example In my opinion, I think it is appropriate that the cash balances are confirmed under the U.S. Auditing standards. This is mainly because cash amounts are the most liquid part of the business and can easily be stolen from the firm or misrepresented (Kieso 77). Moreover, it could be termed as a control measure to ensure that no cash is lost between the time of recoding and auditing. It may also be trick especially because businesses are in operations whereby the cash balance is expected to vary with business activities. The procedure for cash balances auditing may be a bit different as compared to other forms of audits yet so closely related. The first step is to identify the main purpose of the cash audit; which in this case is to ensure that the balances indicated in the cashbook correspond to the cash balances. This is to ensure than no cash is lost between the time of recording on the balance sheet and the time of auditing the records. The second step is taking into consideration the relevant developments for the cash account. Such developments could be as a result of sales or expenditure among other things. Finally the audit process is conducted to ensure that the balance is consistent. Finally, bank reconciliation may or may not be made. The cash account is one that is under constant risks. To start with, being the most liquid asset, cash can easily be stolen from the company by either the workers or the management. Moreover, it is more likely to be misrepresented due to the fact that it is constantly changing. When controlling cash related risks, caution is taken to avoid confusion with the bank account. More often than not, some transactions are conducted using both accounts and often recorded as one. Additionally, proper planning must be taken into consideration to avoid any risks that might occur in the process (Kieso 77). These risks can be classified into the fraud triangle which has

Learning - teacher Essay Example for Free

Learning teacher Essay Good afternoon everyone, today I am going to talk about education. Education has many affects but how does education affects our lives. Education affects people by opening them up to new ideas, thus broadening their thinking. As for example, A degree can also broaden opportunities in the job market. Sometimes education can change what you believe, if you find new truth and need to fit it into your worldview. As long as a person is careful to actually examine the information that is presented, and not just blindly accept anything from any source, education usually improves lives and minds and offers us more opportunities and possibilities. The education for society can be different, due to the fact that various types of education and learning methods and assumptions affect me and others in many different ways. An important key role in our life by far is education, because so far it has given me a different perspective of life. A well-known Greek Philosopher named Plato once said that the direction in which education starts a man will determine his future in life. He literally means the type of education we chose to follow or have leads to us becoming that. So far in my journey of life it has opened and shown my eyes to a lot to see in this world. Education has given me the chance to learn and discover new things around me; in addition it has taught me to believe about life. Education has made me who I am today, and will have a huge impact in my future to come, because it will determine how I will live. It has given me a picture and sense on what I can achieve and do in life. My education started at a very young age, just like most people start theirs. My first mentors and teachers were not from elementary school, but they were my own people that raised me from home. The education I received to this day has made me a better decision maker about life’s big questions. Nelson Mandela best said that education is the most powerful weapon which can be used to change the world. What Nelson Mandela is trying to mean is that education is the answer to move forward in life. I totally agree with Mandela on that.

Child Soldiers and Poverty

Child Soldiers and Poverty Child Soldiers in Africa What accounts for the phenomenon of child soldiers in Africa? The primary cause contributing to the recruitment of child soldiers in Africa is poverty. While other factors such as ‘war’ itself, proliferation of small arms, lack of education, displacement all inevitably lead to child soldier recruitment, it is however poverty at the root of these circumstances. Therefore this essay shall argue this case by examining how Africa has come to have such high levels of poverty and by showing the association between other factors and that of poverty. To establish what is meant by the term ‘child soldier’ it must first be defined and a brief description offered that explains the recruitment practices used. This in turn allows the reader to better comprehend the devastating outcomes when underlying causes such as extreme poverty are not addressed. Subsequently this essay examines the factors that account for the phenomenon of child soldiers in Africa and through this examination of causal factors it will become apparent that pov erty is a recurring theme. Once it has been established that poverty is indeed the major cause of child soldier recruitment attention is then given to what is being done to stop it. Finally consideration must be given to the problems that arise when addressing the issues of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of the child soldier back into the community, to avoid a replication of the whole cycle. This focus on stopping child soldier recruitment and difficulties faced after hostilities cease, demonstrate an attempt to eradicate the practice at the causal level and show a commitment to assisting children who have already endured and survived this reprehensible process. A Definition of the ‘Child Soldier’ According to UNICEF: A child soldier is defined as any child boy or girl under 18 years of age, who is part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity, including, but not limited to: cooks, porters, messengers, and anyone accompanying such groups other than family members. It includes girls and boys recruited for sexual purposes and/or forced marriage. The definition, therefore, does not only refer to a child who is carrying, or has carried weapons (Cape Town Principals, 1997). Recruitment Children are commonly taken from their homes, their schools, orphanages and refugee camps for displaced persons, directly to military camps for training. Many children are abducted by force while military offences are taking place on a child’s village. In contrast others actually volunteer and join the army (both government and rebel) to receive perceived benefits such as protection, food, opportunities to loot and a sense of power with a gun in their hands. The training commences very shortly after the children are abducted and its main focus is to quickly prepare the children to fight a war. Intense psychological pressure is placed on them whereby the links of the children with society are broken and a programming process is commenced to think of war and only war. This in turn is aimed at dehumanising the children and turning them into killing machines. The discipline is extremely hard and if a child is caught trying to escape often the penalty would be death and more than likely this would be carried out by another child soldier as a deterrent to others. It is also not uncommon to order these children to kill their own relatives, neighbors and to attack and steal from their own villages. This is a deliberate ploy by armed groups to destroy any chance of the child being accepted back into their village (Honwana, 2002). The Primary Cause The Children within African countries are generally at a higher risk of poverty, disease, malnutrition, becoming an orphan and have a higher mortality rate than seen in western developed nations. In addition sexual and labor exploitation (slave labor and armed conflict) has increased in the last twenty to thirty years. Africa is experiencing this state of affairs due to the poor state of socio-economic development in Africa and the nature of the development policies that have given rise to it. This terrible situation these children find themselves in is largely due to the failure of both state governments and markets. The developed world needs to redefine poverty reduction strategies urgently to address this situation and this may include more discriminatory aid allocation that includes debt relief, in agreement with the individual governments commitments to reducing poverty. The poverty we refer to above is predominantly of a rural nature as many of Africa’s poorest live in rural areas and thus depend on subsistence farming to provide food and income. Sub-Saharan Africa has the greater amount rural poor who are living in abject poverty and this includes the rural poor people of Eastern and Southern Africa, a region that has one of the world’s highest number of poor people. Rural poverty in many areas of Africa such as the Sub-Saharan region has its roots in the colonial system and the policy and institutional restraints that it imposed on poor people. Recent developments that affected the poor in Africa can also be attributed to the cold war between the east and west. The competition between the two sides resulted in many countries throughout Africa taking sides and either following a socialist model of development or a neo liberalism approach. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the fact that many born in recent generations within Africa have been exposed to the later model, many saw their future based within the context of a ‘free market’ system. This system while showing encouraging signs initially started to show cracks into the 1990’s as it became apparent that an ever widening gap was developing between the south and the north. Many countries now found themselves in more debt from borrowed funds that could not be repaid than they were a decade earlier. In short the policy had basically managed to increase the wealth of developed countries, particularly multinational corporations (MNC’s) and the elitists within either African governments / rebel leaders. In contrast the poorest have received little due to a lack adequate social development policy (Baylis Smith, 1999). In recent decades, economic policies and institutional structures have been modified to close the income gap. Structural adjustments have also dismantled existing rural systems, but have not always built new ones. Furthermore in many transitional economies, the rural situation is now experiencing continuing stagnation, poor production, low incomes and the rising vulnerability of poor people. The reduced access to markets is a problem for many small businesses in Africa. The rural population is poorly structured and is often situated in remote locations that make it difficult for any assistance initiatives to reach. As a result more and more government policies and investments where they exist to address poverty reduction will most likely favor urban over rural areas. Given the above situation child labor is likely to keep increasing in Africa into the future  as the families or possibly just the children are dependant on the income they earn to simply subsist. In addition it has been found that if attempts are made to stop children working, it will only worsen the families or individuals situation unless new forms of income producing activities can be provided as an alternative. While this shift in income producing activities may help alleviate the situations where children are exploited and exposed to hazardous working conditions there still is concern that these children are not receiving an education. As the children are often not attending school they are in effect limiting their future chances of actually improving their situation and are more likely to continue a cycle of poverty through to the next generation (Ronald, Hope Sr. Kempe, 2005). Other Causes An obvious but often overlooked cause is simply ‘war’ itself – for without war there would be no need for child soldiers. Other causes consist of a proliferation of small arms since the end of the cold war, lack of education and displacement. These factors are likely to be present when a child is forcefully recruited by means of abduction which is a common occurrence in poor rural remote parts of Africa. Well known targets for this repulsive behavior are schools, walking home from school, refugee camps and from the home, often during the night. Others motivations that may lead to a child ‘voluntarily’ choosing to become a child soldier often stem from a view that the armed force will provide various opportunities not available at home. Additionally they are seen as providing a sense of adventure, survival in the case of an orphan, revenge against killed family members and escape from an either oppressive or abusive home (Cahn, 2005). These ‘other’ causes do indeed contribute to a child decision to become a child soldier, especially if that recruitment has been forcibly undertaken. The ‘state’ is often virtually non existent due to corruption / conflict and thus not able to provide sensible economic policy that may encourage industry and development or any social safety nets. The result is there are simply insufficient jobs; the only organization is that of the army or rebel group and therefore child soldiers in Africa do not exist for ideological reasons, but rather reasons of survival and escape from abject poverty. The fact that war is one of the main causes of child soldier recruitment seems too obvious and it appears quite strange that many non government organisations, researchers and bodies such as the UN have failed to even recognise it as a major cause in their research / discussions as a trigger for child soldier recruitment This ignorance may account for why many of the current efforts such as the millennium development goals (MDG’s) are failing Africa. Moreover as war is such a massive force of destruction and normality in Africa that sadly many children grow up believing it is a part of everyday life. Just being aware of its presence in your backyard / town generates a continuous need where a child must look out for themself through violence. War will cause the collapse of society including, family structures, closure of schools and other places of learning and lead to high unemployment. All of which indirectly lead children to view involvement in military conflicts as the only choice available to them for survival. The circumstances of education have a very immense impact on young children and through childhood and education children are forming their morals, values and goals for later life. Access to education and the content that is actually taught in schools are of equal importance. The relevance of education to employment, the way in which children are treated in their schools, or the way the school operates as a recruiting place are also important when studying the relationship between education and the recruitment of child soldiers. Likewise, the lack of education is a perilous trap because children will find armed violence as the only possible solution to their unappeasable boredom. Whilst studying the significance of education, the link between education and employment is also very important. In many of Africa’s unstable countries, this connection is very fragile and as a result children often find themselves thrown into a world of poverty and unemployment where education has no value. A consistent cycle of poverty leads to one course for its children that appears to offer economic protection and that course is that of armed involvement. As poverty increases in third-world countries the connection between education and employment is rapidly eroding and tragically a child coming to the conclusion that education is not very important in their lives. Singer (2001, p. 45) attributes the expansion of child soldiers to the proliferation of light weapons. â€Å"Rarely mentioned in analyses of world threats, which typically focus on the most complex and expensive systems, light weapons (rifles, grenades, light machine guns, land mines, and other â€Å"child-portable† systems) are the weapons most often used in contemporary warfare and produce 80 to 90 percent of all the casualties. Technological and efficiency advances in these weapons permit the transformation of children into lethal fighters†. After the Cold War there were enormous amounts of small arms in surplus throughout the world. Until recently, the weight and technicality of small arms precluded the employment of children in front-line positions. The proliferation of simple, light arms such as the M16 and AK-47 assault rifles has meant that they are now easily handled and carried by the child. This is due in part to lighter weight, less moving parts, which allows for easy stripping and reassembly even for a child under the age of 10 (Faulkner, 2001). A final contributing factor discussed in this essay is that of ‘displacement’. Children that are separated from a family due to a variety of different reasons will not have any reference for guidance, support or education. These children’s displacement may be the result of past wars that have created a generation of orphans as well as other children that are dislocated. Often these times is when children may identify with an armed group and possibly even volunteer their services to an armed group. However many children most likely initially move to either live on the streets in urban areas or possibly be able to access an orphanage for protection and shelter, although many will end up in refugee camps for displaced peoples. It is from these places of ‘safety’ that these special risk groups are often forcibly recruited and as they are especially vulnerable and feel defenseless they will usually come to acceptance of promises that a powerful armed group will also provide them with protection, shelter, food, and other basics of survival (Save the Children Federation, 2001). International Law Children’s Rights The international community has implemented laws that ban the recruitment and use of child soldiers in conflict. This legal and policy network is comprised of numerous laws developed by many international institutions and have been ratified by many governments. The following lists some organizations that have established many of the laws we see today that prohibit the use of child soldiers in conflict and also some of the major conventions (Hughes, 2000). The League of Nations (1924 Declaration for the Rights of the Child). The UN Security Council – numerous resolutions. The International Labor Organisation – Child labour conventions. The Geneva Conventions were adopted in 1949. The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child – 2002. Although some of these laws may be imperfect, legal protections now exist and are increasing to protect children from being drawn into military service. Where governments such as seen in Africa are not democracies and therefore may not be accountable to their citizens, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and International institutions represent the best possible sources of change because they function outside of the state bureaucracy. In some of Africa’s states that are experiencing conflict they may be either unable / unwilling, to protect children’s rights. NGOs have shown success in drawing attention to the problems facing children and in affording services and resources to help them. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has also been fervently promoted by NGOs which has resulted in many countries ratifying the convention (Cahn, 2005). While conventions and laws are importantly necessary to address child soldier recruitment defiance of them needs to be correctly scrutinised, reported and the perpetrators held accountable before tribunals or other bodies such as the Statute of the International Criminal Court. Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration The ‘gun’ gave a sense of power that was not there prior to becoming a child soldier and was most likely used against a child’s own community. This raises two issues, firstly how do these children lose this sense of power and secondly how do the children reintegrate into communities they may very well have alienated? One thing that is obvious it that the process will be long and difficult in many cases and will require feasible and special programs to achieve rehabilitation and reintegration (Zack-Williams, 2001). When children can be induced into formal disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration programmes, there are many factors to address. Firstly the number of soldiers reporting for disarmament and demobilisation need to be counted, their weapons surrendered and consideration given to what communities or other destinations they choose to relocate to. The ideology of violence needs to be addressed by imposing alternative values and non-violent means of confl ict resolution. The following points Malan (2000) demonstrates what needs may need addressing when child soldiers are being demobilised: †¢ Nutrition †¢ Medical treatment (including STD’s and drug abuse) †¢ Respect and self-esteem †¢ Human dignity and confidentiality †¢ Consultation and participation in determining their fates †¢ Reintegration packages and benefits †¢ Community sensitisation in advance of family reintegration †¢ Amnesty from prosecution, protection from retribution for acts committed †¢ Protection from repeat recruitment †¢ Mental ‘disarmament’; †¢ Education, peace education and vocational training †¢ Employment creation. Given the number of needs as shown above there would obviously need to be a huge commitment on the part of all parties involved (not just the NGO’s) to have any hope of achieving a beneficial outcome. Furthermore when considering the above needs it does highlight how much damage child soldier’s recruitment can do to the child. This awareness should encourage further urgent work by all concerned to address the causative factors such as abject poverty which is at the root of the whole child soldier process. Conclusion The entire child soldier phenomenon is a poignant process where children are being deprived of their childhood, denied an education and blocked from actively participating in their chosen culture. As a matter of urgency the underlying abject poverty that is a catalyst for children’s involvement in conflict and war, must be addressed by good governance, social policy and targeted aid / assistance by NGO’s and international bodies such as the UN. Priorities to assist in achieving a reduction in poverty in countries where hostilities have ceased should include the following. Improvements that allow ‘secure’ private sector activity, strengthening the public sector / quality of governance, increasing investment in infrastructure, the creation of service delivery in human development and the creation of a social safety net. Furthermore increased work must be done to not only create laws that prohibit the use of child soldiers in Africa, but to actively prosecute those responsible and apply appropriate penalties as a deterrent to others. Given the large number of needs shown to rehabilitate child soldiers and the subsequent investment in time and money; a serious commitment will have to made by those involved to provide the best chance for the child to attain some ‘normality’ of life and to not see the child return to armed conflict. Reference List Baylis, J Smith, S 1999, The Globalization of World politics – An Introduction to International Relations, Oxford University Press, New York. Cahn, N 2005, ‘Poor Children: Child â€Å"Witches† and Child Soldiers in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Public Law and Legal Theory Paper No. 177, The George Washington University law School. Faulkner, F 2001, Kindergarten killers: morality, murder and the child soldier problem, Third World Quarterly, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 491–504. Honwana, A 2002, Negotiating Post-war Identities: Child Soldiers in Mozambique and Angola, in Bond, G and Gibson, N (ed) 2002. Contested Terrains and Constructed Categories. Colorado: Westview Press, p. 3. Hope Sr. K.R 2005, Child survival, poverty, and labor in Africa, Journal of Children and Poverty, vol.11, no. 1, pp. 19 — 42. Hughes, L 2000, Can International Law Protect Child Soldiers?, Peace Review, vol.12, no. 3, pp. 399 — 405. Malan, M 2000, ‘Disarming and demobilising child soldiers: The underlying challenges’, African Security Review, vol. 9, no. 5/6. Save the Children Federation 2001, Child Soldiers Care Protection of Children in Emergencies, Save the Children Federation, accessed 20 May 2008, Singer PW, 2001, ‘Caution: Children at War’, Parameters, vol.31, no. 4, winter 2001/2002, p. 40. UNICEF 1997, Cape Town principles and best Practices, UNICEF, accessed 23 May 2008, . Zack-Williams, AB, 2001 Child soldiers in the civil war in Sierra Leone, Review of African Political Economy, vol. 28, no. 87, pp. 73 — 82.

Trends in Nigerias telecommunications sector

Trends in Nigerias telecommunications sector CHAPTER 4 This section reviews the various trends in the flow of FDI in Nigerias telecommunications sector; the pre-liberalisation era and the post liberalisation era of the sector putting into consideration the circumstances that led to this policy change by the government of Nigeria. The determinants of telecoms FDI and its impact on Nigerias economic growth is analyzed taking note of the trend in inflow before and after the adoption of the liberalisation policy (1980 and 2008) 4.1.1 Pre-Liberalisation Era: Move towards Liberalisation (1980-1999) Prior to 1980, the telecommunications sector was viewed as a strategically imperative but comparatively neglected sector in Nigeria. It was one of the most undeveloped telecoms sector in Africa as it was largely characterized by poor performance manifested in low profitability, large unmet demand for services, poor technical and operational quality of service, and absence of new services. The sector was heavily dominated by the state-run monopoly-NITEL In spite of the mounting hitches of the telecom sector in Nigeria, the need for its privatization was not felt until the mid 1980s with the commencement of the structural adjustment programme (SAP). Between 1988 and 1991, the Technical Committee on Privatization and Commercialization (TCPC) carried out a comprehensive diagnostic appraisal of NITELs operations and adopted the commercialization option because the enterprise was considered strategic. The aim of this sector reform was to increase competition, lead to greater managerial autonomy and improve the incentive structure through the eradication of some of the principal-agent problems (Jerome, 2002). The resort to privatization/commercialization was informed by several considerations. First, by 1985, the quantum of resources required to sustain the state owned enterprise (SOE) NITEL had become an excruciating burden on Nigeria. Second, it was predicted that a carefully planned privatization programme would be an effective strategy to improve efficiency of operations, broadening share ownership, attracting foreign investment and reduce government participation where the private sector has the capabilities to operate more efficiently and lastly, the success of developed countries privatisation programme (Jerome, 2002). Prior to commercialization, NITEL operated as a very inefficient monopoly grappling with lack of clear policy direction, counterproductive bureaucratic red tape and a myriad of other problems. These negative factors put together prompted the government to make policy changes towards FDI. Subsequently, the telecommunications industry in Nigeria witnessed the deregulation of telecommunications services in 1992 through the promulgation of Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC) Decree, No. 75 of 1992, introducing private participation in the provision of telecommunications services in Nigeria, thus ending the state-owned NITELs monopoly of the sector and ushering in competition. The federal government, through the promulgation of Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC) Decree No. 75 of 1992, introduced private participation in the provision of telecommunications services in Nigeria. The telecommunications business was hereby open to foreign operators in different telecommunications se rvice areas to improve the sectors efficiency (Jerome, 2002). During this period, the government issued a new policy framework and set the following sector targets to increase telecommunication growth rate to an annual minimum of 13.5% such that 10% of the rural communities are served in the short term, 30% in the medium term and 60% in the long term; achieve a teledensity of 1.5 by 2001 by installing 1.5 million lines and 1.2 million mobile telephone lines. Install 8 million fixed lines by 2005; and ensure that in the medium term, telephones are within 5 kilometres walking distance in stead of the current 50 kilometres (Tella et al, 2007). All this and even more was achieved within a short period of time after foreign investors entered the telecoms market. Under the new dispensation, NITEL was denied access to subsidies, privileges and other forms of soft capital that enabled it to compete without improving efficiency. More importantly, commercialization was quickly followed by deregulation, which put an end to state owned NITELs monopoly of the sector. NITEL responded to the competitive environment by articulating a strategic plan aimed at ensuring growth and retaining a greater market share. The company was reregistered as a public limited company (Plc) under the Companies and Allied Matters Decree of 1990 with a completely new capital structure of fully paid 55 million ordinary shares of N100 each, giving an equity base of N5.5 billion and a new gearing ratio of 3:2 (Jerome, 2002). The companys stature as a fully commercialized enterprise invariably meant greater expectation from government, consumers and the general public. However, the commercialization of NITEL has not been a huge success as NITEL still operates like the civil se rvice, with functions structured within hierarchical and poorly coordinated departments and service provision organized along geographical lines corresponding to administrative regions in the country. 4.1.2 Liberalisation and FDI promotion Era (1999-2001) After the first step towards deregulating the telecoms sector by the military government in 1992 to boost the sectors development failed, and also due to the inefficiency of NITEL, the democratic government in 1999 further saw the need to liberalise and encourage foreign investment in the telecoms sector. As foreign investors seemed to have the expertise and finances required to provide telecommunications services in Nigerias market which was served by the monopoly of NITEL. The liberalization of Nigerias telecommunications industry started in the early 1990s and accelerated in 2000, after the election of a democratic government. By 2001, foreign investors were issued licences to commence operations. Prior to the auction of the license, Nigeria was viewed as a high-risk investment country, however, from 2001 all the companies have recorded impressive trading profits (Ndukwe, 2008). This could suggest that the factors that encouraged foreign firms to invest in Nigerias telecoms sector and the substantial improvement in the sectors efficiency was as a result of the regime shift. The democratic government encouraged greater private sector and foreign firms participation in the delivery of telecommunications services in Nigeria to introduce competition in the sector, and to strengthen ongoing reform efforts to embrace full privatization of NITEL with a view to overcoming prolonged constraints on telecommunications performance and growth (Jerome, 2002). There fore, it can be said that the involvement of the democratic government during the liberalisation era acted as an important locational advantage that encouraged market seeking FDI such as telecommunication service firms to invest in Nigeria. Some of the policies embarked on by the Nigerian government to attract foreign investors as a result of the introduction of the SAP are the establishment of the Industrial Development Coordinating Committee (IDCC), investment incentive strategy, the privatization and commercialization programme, and the shift in macroeconomic management in favour of industrialization, deregulation and market-based arrangements. Evidence from literature also found that the macro policies in place before the SAP discouraged foreign investors (Odozi , 1995). Some of the other incentives for foreign investors include the new Nigerian Enterprise decree in 1989 which authorized 100% foreign ownership in any new venture except those in banking, oil, insurance, and mining. Furthermore, the military government decreed the establishment of the Nigerian Investment Promotion Commission (NIPC), the commission was charged with the responsibility facilitating the process of businesses set up in Nigeria and thereby reducing the time required to set up a foreign affiliate)as well as the liberalization of the foreign exchange market. The government also introduced a new visa policy to enable genuine foreign investors to acquire entry visa to Nigeria within 48hours of submitting the required documentation, furthermore, the expatriate quota requirement for foreign nationals working in Nigeria was replaced with work permit. The government also provides non-fiscal incentives to foreign investors in the telecommunication sector in addition to a tariff struc ture that ensures that investors recuperate their investment over a reasonable period of time, bearing in mind the need for differential tariffs between urban and rural areas. Rebate and tax relief are provided for the local manufacture of telecommunications equipment and provision of telecommunications services (UNCTAD, 2010). These, with amendments, are the policies implemented by the Nigerian government to attract foreign investment. The relative success of this era, though very little flow of FDI inflow entered the country initially, marked the beginning of increased foreign investors interest in Nigeria. As a result, there has been discernible change in the relationship between telecoms FDI and economic growth in Nigeria after these policies were implemented. Subsequently, the reform undertaken resulted in increased profitability, network expansion and modernization of telecommunications services in Nigeria. 4.1.3 Post Liberalisation Era (2001-2008) During this period, the sector recorded strong growth in the Nigerian telecommunications sector especially in the fixed-line market; also, private operators have recently increased investments as the market plans for the expected boom in internet broadband. Between 2000 and 2009, the telecommunications sector has contributed to Nigerias economy in various ways such as the creation of direct and indirect employment in the economy. Also, reliable telecommunications networks has improved the productivity and efficiency of other sectors of the economy such as the banking, stock transaction, e-payment, distance learning, e-health and other commercial transactions are now ICT enabled hereby enhancing the quality of life (Ndukwe, 2004). It has further assisted the country to attract FDI into other sectors of the economy; theoretically, greater FDI flow into developing countries that have better telecommunications networks (Lydon and Williams 2005). Which will invariably improve the standard of living of the inhabitants, as the number of people that have direct access to telecoms services have increased; previously telecoms services was seen as useful to and affordable for the educated and wealthy people in the country. Also through competition, it has helped improve sector efficiency and the costs of services and the telecommunications products such as phones, laptops, etc have become affordable for the average Nigerian population. Lastly, it has been a source of revenue generation for the government in form of tax. NCC (2006) reported that MTN paid N9.8million tax to the Federal Government of Nigeria, while the workers paid N 1.1 billion as tax to the government. The company also paid N34.8 billion to the government for license fee, duties and other statutory payments to the government. At the end of 2007, MTN had paid a total tax of approximately N150 billion since it began operations in 2000. The government has earned a total of N250 billion from spectrum licensing fee (NCC 2008, Mawoli, 2009). The rising share of greenfield projects amoung FDI investment in Nigerias telecoms (as in the case of MTN and Etisalat) reflects the effects of opening the sector to competition and the shrinking number of assets to be privatized (World bank, 2006). With the liberalization of the telecommunication sector, Nigerias telecommunications sector is evidently experiencing rapid growth. Figure 4.2 below shows the trend of telecoms FDI inflow into Nigeria between 1999 when the sector was liberalised and 2008; obviously the growth of the telecommunications sector in Nigeria has exceeded all estimated forecasts. With this growth rate between 1999 and 2008, theres enormous growth potential in the market, as there has been a continuous increase in demand for telecom service because of the market liberalization and massive telecom investments from foreign MNCs. Figure 4.3 below shows the increase in telecoms operators in Nigeria and other African countries. In the first quarter of 2008, there were 22 telecommunications operators in the country, compared to only the monopoly by NITEL as at 1999 (NCC, 2009). Over recent years, all branches of the telecom industry have generated considerable growth and the telecom industry has emerged as a main motor of the countrys economy. It is only the oil sector that has seen more investment and telecom is now seen as the second most lucrative branch for investment in Nigerias economy. As a result, Nigeria presently possesses Africas largest and most promising telecom market. Even though Nigeria is trying to meet up with other countries in terms of providing phone technology at an affordable price and doing so reliably, the market has taken significant strides in its development (Ariyo 2005). Concomitant with the encouraging volume of FDI inflow for the telecoms sector was a very successful policy which succeeded in effectively changing the pattern of FDI flow into this sector. This growth potential has also attracted foreign operators that have recently acquired some of the private players (HSBC global research, 2009). Such as in the case of Zain which was formely owned by Econet and was later acquired by Vmobile, in July 2010, Zain announced the sale of 100% of its shares to Bharti Airtel at $10.7 billion on an enterprise basis. The sectors contribution to Nigerias GDP increased from 0.6% in 2001 to 2.8% in 2008 which is an increase over fourfolds. This can be attributed to the increase in foreign investment in the sector. Also, the sector recorded a real GDP growth of 32.54 percent in the first quarter of 2010 compared with 31.75 percent recorded in the first quarter of 2009. The figure below shows the performance of the sector in the first quarter of 2010. The total telecom productivity capacity, number of connected line, competition, GSM telecoms services, service quality, FDI inflow and employment generation in the telecoms sector improved significantly after full liberalization. However, the industry is still currently facing some challenges such as high operation costs and service tariffs of the telecom companies as a result of the poor electricity supply in the country (Mawoli, 2009). 4.2 Determinants of FDI into the telecoms sector of Nigeria It is important to note that various factors determine the choice of a firm to invest abroad. Because this case is that of a service firm where their services cannot be easily exported or traded, FDI is the best option. This is market seeking FDI therefore its determinants might be different from that of non-service firms. Theoretically, a firm must possess ownership of some firm-specific tangible or intangible asset or skill that gives it an advantage over other firms (Ownership advantage) before it can engage in FDI (Dunning, 1988). From the discussion above the determinants of foreign investment into the Nigerian telecommunications sector in the early 2000 till date can be deduced to be the following: 4.2.1 Liberalization of the sector The first sector specific step Nigeria took to attract foreign investment was to liberalize the telecommunications sector therefore opening it up to foreign investors to allow competition and efficiency. This is the most fundamental factor for attracting FDI because if there is no opportunity to invest in a country (other than purchasing the current operator, where that option is offered), there can be no FDI (Worldbank, 2006). By deregulating the domestic telecommunications sector, the Nigerian government predicted that this would make the telecoms markets attractive to foreign investors which was the same strategy adopted by developed nations to improve the state of their telecoms sector. The democratic government embarked on the reform of public enterprises, including privatization, within the framework of macroeconomic reform and liberalization which has been a successful strategy to attract FDI into the telecoms sector of the country (Afeikhena 2002). There was no way foreign investors would have invested in the market without the liberalisation policy which makes it the major determinant of FDI into the sector. 4.2.2 Regime type Positive improvements have taken place in Nigeria since May 29, 1999 when democracy replaced the flurry of military governments. The democratic government encouraged a number of strong-willed actions in an effort to attract foreign investors into the country (Fatoki 2006). It is obvious that during the military era, foreign firms did not have the interest of investing in Nigerias telecoms market despite the first move towards liberalizing the economy by the military government in 1992 until during the democratic era in 1999 when foreign firms entered the market the following year. Also, the involvement of the democratic government in 2000 encouraged market seeking FDI as it served as a locational advantage for telecommunication service firms to invest in Nigeria. 4.2.3 Market size and growth After the liberalisation of the sector, strategic foreign investors were drawn into Nigeria to seek new market opportunities, higher returns and diversification of risks. The failure of NITEL to meet the demand of subscribers must have influenced foreign investors been that they have prospects to gain large market share because of their knowledge, familiarity and past experiences of foreign investment in other developing countries (as the first entrants MTN and ECONET are multinational firms who have previous investment in other developing countries). With the success of the first few entrants into the sector further attracted more foreign firms into the country in subsequent years despite the perspective of Nigeria as a high-risk investment country. Theoretically, the investment incentive for market seeking FDI such as telecom firms who seek to expand their market presence by increasing their penetration in local markets is the market size and growth. These firms focus on local production and local sale (as opposed to exporting) they hereby place high emphasis on market size, market growth, and consumption ability (Na and Lightfoot 2006). As this is the case for Nigeria telecoms sector whos main aim is to serve domestic markets and become competitive in other ways-such as through proximity to the market and being able to respond to changing local circumstances and preferences (Lim 2001). Moreover, tapping the demand for services in a host country requires a physical presence when services are difficult to trade, which implies that FDI in services is likely to be market-seeking. 4.2.4 Institutional Environment Various policies and incentives were adopted by the government to attract FDI in Nigeria. Such institutional factors (as mentioned above) include the 100% foreign ownership, the NIPC, the visa policy to enable genuine foreign investors acquire entry visa to Nigeria within 48hours of submitting the required documentation, work permit in place of expatriate quota for foreign nationals, quick return on investment, rebate and tax relief provided for the local manufacture of telecommunications equipment and provision of telecommunications services. This factor directly affects business operations and has further encouraged foreign investors in Nigeria telecoms sector. 4.3 Impact of telecoms FDI on Nigerias economic growth Telecommunications in Nigeria has performed dual role as a traded service likewise a vehicle for trade in other sectors of the economy. Since the liberalization of the telecoms market in 2000, Nigeria has attracted foreign investors into the country and has been declared as one of the highest growing telecoms market in the world. Concomitant with this is the growth of the economy as a result of this inflow. The impact of the industrys FDI inflow on economic growth can be measured from various aspects but the four most important will be addressed in this section. Figure 4.6 below shows the revenue from telecoms as a percentage of GDP. There has been an increase in the revenue from telecoms as a percent of GDP between 1990 and 2008. In 1999 it was at 0.8% which continued to increase to 1.05% in 1992; it however dropped between 1993 and 1997 to 0.7%. In 1998, it increased to 1.35 and declined to 0.65% in 2000. However, the revenue from telecoms between 2001 and 2008 is very much higher than the revenue from telecoms recorded between 1990 and 2000. It increased from 1.5% in 2001 to 3.2% in 2004 but declined in 2005 to 3.1% and grew to 3.4% in 2008. 4.3.1 Telecoms FDI and employment generation. Subsequent to the entry of foreign investors into Nigerias telecom market, the sector has contributed to the economy in various ways one of which is through the generation of employment for a significant number of Nigerians. Over 3,500 people were directly employed and an estimated 400,000 indirect employment created by GSM operators in 2003. However in 2003, total subscribers of telecoms service were about 4million and approximately 59 million in 2008 which would infer that the number of direct and indirect employment created by the telecoms industry would have increased in manifolds (Mawoli, 2009). Though, in recent times no proper estimate has been made of the volume and impact of new employment creation due to this growth in the sector. Table 4.1 below (although a bit outdated as a result of unavailability of a more recent one) shows that the telecommunications sector accounts for the highest amount of employment creation in the whole economy as at 2005. However as at March 2010, the telecoms sector created a total of over 3million direct and indirect employment related to the telecoms service in the country. The telecoms sector has hereby increased employment through self finance businesses some of which include dealerships, cyber cafes, one-man phone boot operations, phone repairs, sale of accessories, GSM vendors, PR agencies, call centre employees, security personnel, etc (NCC, 2010). Based on this evidence, the fastest growing employer of labour in Nigeria is the telecommunications industry especially the wireless telephone service provider. This increase in employment is as a result of the liberalisation of the sector which was dominated by a single national telephone provider (NITEL), increase in competition among telecoms players thereby requiring more labour in order to meet the increasing demand for their services and improve the performance of the under-performing sector. Many young Nigerians who would have otherwise remained unemployed are finding steady employment in this sector. Hereby reducing the unemployment rate in the country, although it cannot be concluded that this sector has to large extent helped curb unemployment but it has created more employment in the economy. 4.3.2 Telecoms FDI and infrastructure development Since 2001, the telecommunication companies in Nigeria have jointly contributed to the development of the nations infrastructural facilities by investing billions of dollars in infrastructure deployments, network rollouts, upgrades and expansions due to the previous state of Nigerias infrastructure as highly underdeveloped. These consist mainly of fibreà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ optic cables, base stations and satellite connections, transmitting traffic between cities and to other countries. To support the mobile infrastructure, operators have also embarked on building backbone networks to improve their operations. Such investments include the construction of three networks: a core telecommunication network, a transmission network, a power supply network and also bringing in skilled ICT employees (NCC, 2010). Telecoms investment has focused on infrastructure development in the fixed and mobile networks, growing subscriber base from 17.4million in 2005 to over 24.1million in 2007. A look at a specific operator illustrates the magnitude of telecom players role in the overall infrastructure and operational investment in Nigeria. MTN which is also the operator with the highest market share has invested the most in Nigeria. After the initial network rollout, which took the lions share of its revenue in 2004, MTN claims to have allocated more than 30% of its revenue to capital expenditure (capex). During this period, MTN focused its investment on building up the transmission network to substitute for the lack of established telecom infrastructure (NCC, 2010). Figure 4.7 below shows the percentage of MTNs revenue allocated to capex. In April 2009, Nigerian operators declared that $10bn in further investment is needed for network upgrades and expansion over the next 10 years. Etisalat Nigeria has a budget to invest about $2bn to build network infrastructure in Nigeria over the next three years. MTN has also secured a loan of $600million for expansion of its operations in Nigeria (NCC, 2010). MTN has received N318 ($2.15 billion) bank loan from 17 local and international banks to further expands it network capacity across the country (Nkanga, 2010). Recently, Industrial and Commercial Bank of China agreed to provide $200 million worth of credit for another telecoms company Zain Nigeria to purchase telecoms equipment (NCC, 2010). Theoretically, the efforts of these firms to expand capacity reflect the strategic rivalry between firms in the global marketplace in order to compete effectively. 4.3.3 Telecoms FDI, Technology and Knowledge Transfer Foreign investment in Nigerias telecommunications sector has introduced new technology, research projects and initiatives which have brought significant revenue and an employment boost to Nigeria. So far, most Nigerian mobile operators, such as MTN, Zain and Glo (second national carrier), have undergone a technological evolution from 2G to 2.5G and even 3G. Following Glo Mobiles entry in 2003, the operator started operating on a 2.5G network and brought to Nigeria the benefits of value added services: Multimedia Messaging Services (MMS), Glo Mobile Internet, Glo Mobile Office and Glo Fleet Manager (a vehicle tracking application that gives the subscriber the ability to track and trace equipped vehicles which is an early implementation of an M2M (machine to machine) service). Glo was also the first operator to launch mobile access to the Internet, with other 3G licensees replicating the move soon thereafter. MTN launched an HSDPA enabled 3.5G network in June 2008, while Zain launched its 3G service in early 2009. The introduction of BlackBerry handsets is another step in the transition to next generation services. The BlackBerry was launched in Nigeria by Globacom in 2006, and MTN followed suit in March 2007. The BlackBerry platform is a powerful tool for business people across Nigeria, given the patchy fixed line and Internet penetration in the country. In May 2009, Zain contributed to further popularizing the device by introducing prepaid BlackBerry service. In Nigeria, and at the overall African level, the most immediate wave of innovation will come in the form of connectivity for the growing pools of laptop and smartphone users. In addition, mobile broadband has positive effects on societies through the development of human capital. After analyzing developments in Nigeria, it can be suggested that the rollout of Internet services has positive effects on three broad aspects of the society: development, resource management and networking. Telecommunication ser vices improve social transformation in Nigeria by bringing connectivity to remote areas and to lower income strata. In less than a decade, mobile technologies have enabled network access for a large share of the countrys population, with respect to the ability of these technologies to reach remote and sparsely populated areas both faster and more cost effectively than fixed infrastructure. The transfer of technology to Nigeria has reduced the technology gap between developed nations and Nigeria which is a great step towards development which is an essential determinant of long-term economic growth (NCC, 2010). Subsequently, there has been an increase in the number of technologies and a quality improvement of Nigerias existing technologies which both play a crucial role in economic growth. Transmission of this new ideas and technologies, adoption of high technology products from more advanced economies through FDI, are channels through which technological diffusion can spread to the different sectors of the recipient economy (Toulaboe et al. 2007). Conclusion This chapter has analysed the various determinants of telecoms FDI in Nigeria and the impact of telecoms FDI on Nigerias economic growth. The determinants are liberalisation of the telecom sector, market size and growth, regime type and institutional environment. Factors such as low transaction costs, political stability and trade openness are cannot be said to be determinants of FDI in Nigerias telecom sector as operators still face a lot of challenges in the cost of setting up and maintaining their companys operations in Nigeria such as poor power supply and security, high import duties on telecoms equipments (30-70%). Though international trade in services is on the rise, the fact remains that many services such as telecommunications are non-tradable or costly to trade. And for the telecoms sector whose products to a large extent cannot be subjected to cross-border trade, the trade openness of a host country can be expected to have less of an impact on FDI inflows in that sector. This section further discussed that FDI in the telecoms sector has contributed to economic growth through the generation of employment, infrastructure development and technology/knowledge transfer. The next chapter discusses the findings and concludes the research work.

The Representation of Minorities in American Cinema Essay -- Movies Fi

The Representation of Minorities in American Cinema As the semester progressed and we continued learning how Latinos have been misrepresented through American cinema during the twentieth century, I began to wonder about my own heritage and how Jews were portrayed in films of the same era. I grew up learning about the various stereotypes that have been associated with Jews throughout history, but never have I explored the portrayals of Jews through film history in the United States. My curiosity led me to research Hollywood’s image of the Jew, providing me with a better understanding of the role Jews and Jewish family life have played in American Cinema from the very beginnings of film history. I was able to relate the facts about the representation of Jews in the media to what we have studied this semester about the representation of Latinos and Latinas. Although in class we focused on the portrayals of different Latin American cultures in American film, we must realize that other minorities, social classes, and ethnic groups were mistreated by cinema as well. As Keller states, "One of the side effects of American cinema was often crushingly brutal portrayals of other races and cultures, depictions that spread to larger audiences than ever before possible around the nation and even around the globe" (Keller, 5). Overall, the American film industry felt it necessary to depict all characters but the dominant Anglo in a negative light. "In short", Keller explains, "white Americans believed in the superiority of the white race and depicted this superiority on the silver screen. Every other race was evaluated in relationship to the attainments of the white race and with respect to its approximation to the white race whic... ...//www.grapevinevideo.com/fairbanks.htm The Mark of Zorro. Produced by United Artists and Douglas Fairbanks Productions; directed by Fred Niblo, 1920. Cortes, Carlos E. "Chicanas in Film: History of an Image". Rodriguez, Clara E. Latin Looks. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998. Pp.121-139 Flying Down to Rio. Directed by Herbert Brenon. Produced by Louis Zarecky, 1932. All Movie Guide, Dolores Del Rio. http://www.allmovie.com/cg/x.exe?p=avg&sql=bp18330 Mexican Spitfire. Directed by Leslie Goodwins. Produced by Cliff Reid, 1939. Erens, Patricia. The Jew in American Cinema. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984. Friedman, Lester D. Hollywood's Image of the Jew. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1982. Hangin' With the Homeboys. Directed by Joseph Vasquez, 1991. West Side Story. Directed by Jerome Robbins and Robert Wise, 1961.

My Teaching Philosophy Statement :: Education Educational Educating Essays

My Philosophy Statement Methods of how to educate individuals have been studied by many different philosophers in many different ways. I formed my view of method, curriculum, nature of students, nature of knowledge, and the purpose of public education, as well as my person career goals from those philosophers. I took different aspects of the philosophies of Plato, Rousseau, Sophistry/Foucault, and Pragmatism/Progressivism to create my own philosophy of education. My first view of method is an idea formed by Pragmatism/Progressivism. Being student centered is one method of effective teaching. I believe that students should enjoy their classes. I think part of being a good teacher is making the students want to learn. The most important person in the classroom should be the student. Teachers should base their lessons around the needs of their students. One way in which a teacher could do this is through group work sessions. If one child were behind in a subject the other students in the group might be able to help them. Another idea that I agree with is Rousseau's idea that students should learn through experience. I believe that instead of lecturing, students should learn through experience. The students could bring in leaves and study them, instead of just learning about them in their Science books. I think having variation in the classroom is also an important method of teaching. Instead of their usual Friday spelling test have a Spelling Be e instead. These are all ways to keep the students interest. The main method I chose for my philosophy is student centered. All other methods I have discussed fall into this category, in which the main focus of the classroom is the students. My next philosophy is on curriculum. I agree with Pragmatism/Progressivism. I believe that the purpose of a teacher is to teach their students how to think. Not what to think. There are several ways to go about doing this. One way is through math, students can be taught how to think through reading problems. One reason schools have many subjects is to make their students well rounded, another is to help students develop ways to reason. I agree with Rousseau's idea that students should be taught reason so that they can care about and respect others. Through out ones life they need reason to make decisions. I think students should be taught history so that they do not remake the mistakes of the past.